Rule-governed Behavior Research Articles

Phencyclidine-like abuse liability and psychosis-like neurocognitive effects of novel arylcyclohexylamine drugs of abuse in rodents.

Abuse of novel arylcyclohexylamines (ACX) poses risks for toxicities including adverse neurocognitive effects. In vivo effects of ring-substituted analogs of phencyclidine (PCP), eticyclidine (PCE), and ketamine are understudied. Adult male NIH Swiss mice were used to assess locomotor effects of PCP and its 3-OH, 3-MeO, 3-Cl and 4-MeO analogs; PCE and its 3-OH and 3-MeO analogs; and ketamine and its deschloro and 2F-deschloro analogs, in comparison to those of methamphetamine (METH), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and two benzofuran analogs of MDMA. PCP-like interoceptive effects for all of these ACXs were determined using a food-reinforced drug discrimination procedure in adult male Sprague Dawley rats. A novel operant assay of rule-governed behavior incorporating aspects of attentional set-shifting was used to profile psychosis-like neurocognitive effects of PCP and 3-Cl-PCP in rats, in comparison to cocaine and morphine. PCP-like ACXs were more effective locomotor stimulants than the amphetamines, PCE-like ACXs were as effective as the amphetamines, and ketamine-like ACXs were less effective than the amphetamines. Addition of -Cl, -OH, or -OMe at the 3-position on the aromatic ring did not impact locomotor effectiveness, but addition of -OMe at the 4-position reduced locomotor effectiveness. Lethal effects were induced by drugs with -OH at the 3-position or -OMe at the 3- or 4-position. All novel ACXs substituted at least partially for PCP, and PCP and 3-Cl-PCP elicited dose-dependent psychosis-like neurocognitive deficits in the rule governed behavior task not observed with cocaine or morphine. Novel ACXs exhibit substantial abuse liability and toxicities not necessarily observed with their parent drugs. Significance Statement Novel arylcyclohexylamine analogs of PCP, PCE and ketamine are appearing on the illicit market, and abuse of these drugs poses risks for toxicities including adverse neurocognitive effects. These studies demonstrate that the novel ACXs exhibit PCP-like abuse liability in the drug discrimination assay, elicit varied locomotor stimulant and lethal effects in mice, and induce psychosis-like neurocognitive effects in rats.

B - 72 Neuropsychological Problem-Solving Styles on the Tower of London Drexel.

The Tower of LondonDX (2nd Edition TOLDX, Culbertson & Zillmer, 2005) provides a standardized measure of executive planning and problem solving. To enhance the measure's clinical and empirical utility, four contrasting Executive Planning Styles (EPS), were identified based on two different, but moderately related (i.e., rho = -0.37), TOLDX variables, Time to First Move and Total Move Score. The TOLDX normative data (Technical Manual) for participants ranging in age from 7 to 80years (n = 990) were utilized for study. The participants were drawn from sites in the United States and Canada. An individual's assignment to an EPS was based on initiation time and performance scores either one standard deviation above or below the mean for that individual's normative group. Using these criteria, four contrasting EPS were identified. The four Executive Efficiency constructs are labeled as: Q1 Efficient-Fast, exhibiting rapid, advanced planning skills; Q2 Efficient-Slow, suggesting careful, deliberate, and strategic planning; Q3 Inefficient-Fast, indicating pervasive impulsivity, nonstrategic planning, and an increased likelihood of poor rule-governed behavior; and Q4 Inefficient-Slow, suggesting limitations in executive planning, trial-and-error problem-solving, and possible cognitive limitations. The purpose of this analysis was to further differentiate the executive planning process of an established measure of executive function by combing two constructs (initiation time and performance) into four Executive Planning Styles. Executive planning is a dimension of complex human behavior, and the four-quadrant conceptualization of Executive Efficiency expands our understanding of this very important neuropsychological construct.

Instructing via relations: Function transformations of response and consequence functions of upcoming contingencies

One part of the relational frame theory account of rule-governed behavior is relational responses between elements of a rule and the behavioral and consequential components of the upcoming contingency. This study reports two experiments that used a novel task designed to exert contextual control over relational responses involving components of upcoming reinforcement contingencies. The task presents participants with a series of choices between bubble-clicking tasks. Each trial begins by illustrating the number of bubbles to be clicked and points that may be earned for completing a source task, and presents Crel and Cfunc stimuli to indicate how the task options differ from this task in terms of the number of bubbles to be clicked and the amount of points that may be earned. Experiment 1 exposed participants to a version of the task employing natural language Crels and Cfuncs, and task performances were in line with experimenter expectations. Experiment 2 employed the task to establish Crel and Cfunc functions for novel stimuli, and investigated the impact of post-choice feedback on the development of these functions. Results indicated that the task can establish Crel and Cfunc functions for novel stimuli effectively and provides a means for investigating transformations of functions involving components of contingencies.

Gender Is the Name of the Frame: Understanding Gender through the Lens of Relational Frame Theory

While researchers continue to develop their understanding of gender as a complex and multifaceted concept, the detrimental impact of gender-related inequity and social injustice persists. This conceptual paper describes the potential benefits of incorporating Relational Frame Theory (RFT) as a contextual and pragmatic approach to gender. An RFT lens might enhance our understanding of gender as a language-based phenomenon, involving patterns of derived relational responding and rule-governed behavior. Such an understanding might then facilitate the development of assessments and context-sensitive interventions that support flexible and expansive experiences of gender that promote thriving. Despite the potential utility of an RFT approach, RFT has rarely been applied to gender-related concerns. This paper aims to provide a starting point for exploring gender from an RFT perspective, highlight relevant RFT studies, acknowledge limitations of current lines of research, and provide recommendations regarding future research. We hope that the paper will also act as a call to action for contextual behavioral scientists, as well as demonstrate how an RFT perspective might both align with, as well as add to, existing perspectives from other disciplines.

Observing the Behavior of Organisms in Organizational Behavior Management

ABSTRACT Observation and replication of observed behavior are two key components to organisms surviving and flourishing. In a corresponding manner, people observe the behavior of others in organizations, replicating adaptive while avoiding detrimental behaviors. Learning by observation allows workers to develop repertoires in which adaptive behaviors are reinforced while maladaptive behaviors undergo extinction or are socially and financially punished. Moreover, observers often improve their own performance when monitoring and recording the behavior of others. However, observers also might replicate inappropriate behavior. Imitation, observational learning, observational performance, and rule-governed behavior are discussed in these contexts. Finally, being viewed by others frequently enhances worker responding and accomplishments. These behaviors occur at the individual, group, and organizational levels, allowing some workers, teams, and organizations to flourish.

The Polish adaptation of the measurements of rule-governed behaviors: Generalized Pliance Questionnaire, Generalized Tracking Questionnaire and Generalized Self-Pliance Questionnaire.

In some circumstances rule-governed behavior, a behavior that is governed by verbal rules instead of environmental consequences, may be beneficial for human beings. At the same time, rigid rule following is associated with psychopathology. Thus measurement of rule-governed behavior may be of special use in a clinical setting. The aim of this paper is to assess the psychometric properties of Polish adaptations of three questionnaires measuring generalized tendency to engage in various types of rule-governed behaviors: Generalized Pliance Questionnaire (GPQ), Generalized Self-Pliance Questionnaire (GSPQ), Generalized Tracking Questionnaire (GTQ). A forward-backward method was used for translation. Data was collected from two samples: general population (N = 669) and university students (N = 451). To measure the validity of the adapted scales the participants filled in a set of self-assessed questionnaires: Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale- 21 (DASS-21), General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES), Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II (AAQ-II), Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire (CFQ), Valuing Questionnaire (VQ) and Rumination-Reflection Questionnaire (RRQ). The exploratory and confirmatory analyses confirmed the unidimensional structure of each of the adapted scales. All of those scales presented good reliability (internal consistency measured with Cronbach Alpha) and item-total correlations. The Polish versions of questionnaires presented significant correlations in the expected directions with relevant psychological variables in line with the original studies. The measurement occurred invariant across both samples as well as gender. The results provide evidence that Polish versions of GPQ, GSPQ and GTQ present sufficient validity and reliability to be used in the Polish-speaking population.

Connecting Research, Policy, and Practice in Colleges and Universities: An Internal Researcher/Practitioner Model

Behavior analysis often operates at the level of individual behavior depending on reinforcement contingencies. Here, a behavior analytic perspective addresses the challenge of connecting research to organizations’ policy and practice in order to improve performance regarding the organizations’ strategic objectives. In colleges and universities, three potentially overlapping approaches are plausible: (a) applying published scholarly research literature, (b) contracting external vendors of predictive analytics, and (c) integrating internal researchers/practitioners. This article discusses a model that emphasizes the third approach—internal researcher/practitioners—and that focuses on fundamental concepts related to contingencies (consequences) and rule-governed behavior. The model's use is illustrated in a case study: Florida International University, a large, public, metropolitan, Research I university, located in Miami, Florida. The application of the model appears to relate to significant and rapid improvement in the university's targeted performance metrics (e.g., student success as measured by variables such as students’ retention and on-time graduation).

Does it apply to me: Using Relational Frame Theory to examine anaesthetists' approach to safety behaviour and human factors

Healthcare must provide safe and effective treatment while being cost-effective and ethical in its delivery. Anaesthesia is particularly prone to production pressure, which can lead to compromises in patient safety through risky decision-making. Australian anaesthetists (N=192), trainees, and specialists were asked to complete an electronic survey asking whether they would proceed with surgery in 11 clinical elective scenarios involving a violation of a standard or practice guideline. They were also asked how confident they were in their decisions and provided an opportunity to explain. Across all scenarios, anaesthetists would have proceeded ranging from 8.3% to 89.6. The likelihood to proceed and confidence in the decision in some scenarios was influenced by the decision made, gender, age, and level of expertise. Although not originally designed to investigate rule-governed behaviour using Relational Framework Theory, we found evidence of the influence of plys, tracks and augments, in the explanations which participants provided. Relational Framework Theory may provide insights into individual beliefs, values, motivators, and the influence of culture-behavioural systems in anaesthetists attitudes towards safety practices and human factors.

Rule-Governed Behavior and Climate Change: Why Climate Warnings Fail to Motivate Sufficient Action.

Climate scientists warn of dire consequences for ecological systems and human well-being if significant steps to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions are not taken immediately. Despite these warnings, greenhouse gas concentrations continue to rise, indicating that current responses are inadequate. Climate warnings and reactions to them may be analyzed in terms of rules and rule-governed behavior. The literature on rule-governed behavior in behavior analysis has identified a variety of factors that can reduce rule following, including insufficient rule exposure, insufficient learning history and rule complexity, incomplete rules, instructed behavior not sufficiently learned, rules having weak function-altering effects, conflicting rules, lack of speaker credibility, rule plausibility and inconsistency with prior learning, and insufficient reinforcement for rule following. The present paper aims to analyze how these factors might impact responses to climate change, and possible solutions and strategies are discussed. Much of the theory and research on climate-change communication has come from outside of behavior analysis. Thus, the paper also aims to integrate findings from this literature with a behavior-analytic approach to rule control. Interpreting climate warnings and climate solutions in terms of rule-governed behavior may improve our understanding of why such rules are not more effective, and aid in the development of verbal and nonverbal strategies for changing behavior and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Insight in terms of Behavior in the Clinical Context: Transfer and Rule-governed Behavior

A redefinition of insight-type events is presented, an initial attempt to view insight in terms of behavior analysis in the clinical context and relevant variables are suggested for their study. This definition assumes the insight as a novel behavior that involves the search for solutions to psychological problems. Solving a problem is discovering an effective behavior pattern, based on the creation of verbal rules that help the client to reach the solution. In this problem-solving process, a new behavior emerges, explained through the solution of a transfer task. The theoretical proposal exposed allows a better understanding of this phenomenon, overcoming the problems of mentalist conceptions about the term of insight, and contributes to a better understanding of some relevant elements of change process.

Effects of training different levels of operant variability in rats

If high levels of variability are initially trained, responding remains variable even if the criterion for variability is eliminated. This effect, reported in college students, could have resulted from rule-governed behavior. To extend the generality of this finding, this experiment explored the effects of increasing or decreasing the criteria for reinforcing variability in rat subjects. The variability of a sequence of 3 responses distributed on five levers was reinforced using a Lag n procedure. For one group of rats (0−50) the criterion in successive conditions was Lag 0, 2, 10, 25, and 50. For the other group (50−0) the criteria were presented in decreasing order. For both groups, variability, measured as U values was higher with higher Lag values. For Group 50 – 0, U values with Lags 10, 25, and 50 were higher than for Group 0–50. The results suggest that in rats and humans, high levels of variability established early in training produced more variable behavior even if the requirement for variability decreases. Different from human participants in a previous study, rats’ behavior, stop varying when the criterion was markedly reduced (Lag 2) or eliminated (Lag 0).

Exploring the relationships between rule-governed behavior and adherence to guidelines aiming to reduce the spread of COVID-19

Research demonstrates that socially mediated consequences impact adherence to health mandates during pandemics. However, no published research has examined whether adherence varies based on the extent to which an individual relies on arbitrary social approval (i.e., displays generalized pliance). The present study explored the relationships between adherence to COVID-19 public health measures, two types of rule-following (pliance and tracking), and perceived peer behavior in a sample of adults (n = 288). Findings revealed that adherence was negatively correlated with generalized pliance and tracking was unrelated to adherence. Pliance did not moderate the relationship between peer adherence and individual adherence. Findings are discussed with reference to the need to develop easily adaptable and context sensitive measures of types of rule-following, in addition to a measure of social tracking.

Countercontrol: A Relational Frame Theory (RFT) Account and Revival of a 70-Year-Old Skinnerian Term.

Countercontrol is a Skinnerian operant concept that posits that an individual’s attempts to exert control over another person’s behavior may evoke a countercontrolling response from the person being controlled that functions to avoid or escape the potentially aversive conditions generated by the controller. Despite Skinner’s historical concerns regarding the detrimental effects of countercontrol in terms of hindering optimal societal growth and cultural evolution, the concept has not been widely applied within behavior analysis. Drawing from recent developments in rule-governed behavior and relational frame theory, this article seeks to explicate countercontrol from a contemporary behavior analytic perspective and presents several modern-day societal applications. In particular, a relational frame theory account of rule-governed behavior is used as a framework to elucidate the behavioral processes by which rule-following occurs (or fails to occur) in the context of countercontrol. Implications of a renewed focus on countercontrol for understanding pressing societal issues are also discussed.

Variables involved in the acquisition and maintenance of racial aggression and its victims' reactions.

This study aimed to investigate how behavior analysis can contribute to the understanding of some variables and processes involved in the acquisition and maintenance of racial aggressors' behaviors, as well as the victims' reactions. We describe how the concepts of rule-governed behavior and motivating operations may be involved in institutional racism: Individuals belonging to ethnic groups who hold the social administration in a context may keep important reinforcers available for their own group, while other racial groups may have their access to those reinforcers hindered. For these privileges to be perpetuated, the ruling group can arrange contingencies that reinforce the behavior of following certain rules that contribute to the maintenance of relevant reinforcers for the ruling group and exclusion of Black individuals and other people of color. For those underrepresented groups, motivating operations can be manipulated and reinforcers can be provided only when their responses are deemed appropriate by the dominant group. Individual learning through discriminative training, equivalence class formation, transfer of functions, stimulus generalization, and function altering were also discussed. Patterns such as aggression, escape, and avoidance, were identified in the actions of racial aggressors. Finally, the victim's reactions were also identified as escape, avoidance, or aggression of racial aggressors, but also as effects of processes such as learned helplessness, extinction after elimination of benefits, countercontrol, and respondent conditioning. Despite the lack of research in the field, behavior analysis has the power to elucidate some variables related to this theme, aiding, thus, evidence-based intervention proposals.

Policing Insecurity

In environments of seemingly intractable conflict, how should we understand the role of state capacity building and security-sector reform in transitions to peace? Prevailing wisdom suggests that a strong state security apparatus mitigates cyclical violence and aids in transitions to predictable, rule-governed behavior. Yet growing attention to police brutality in institutionalized democracies calls this assumption into question. Drawing on a multiyear study of war making and state making in eastern DR Congo, this article interrogates logics of police capacity building, analyzing how and why reform efforts intended to bolster the state’s monopoly on violence frequently fail to curb the unrest they seek to disrupt. I argue that enhancing the coercive capacity of the police can entrench a wartime political order that makes peace more elusive; when police deploy the image of the state toward destabilizing ends they reinforce the institutions of everyday war, undermining the stability a monopoly on violence is intended to build.

Rule-Governed Behavior: Teaching Social Skills via Rule-Following to Children with Autism

ABSTRACT Rule-governed behavior (RGB) is behavior that is controlled by verbal descriptions of contingencies rather than by direct contact or a history of direct contact with the contingencies. Humans rely on RGB to navigate a multitude of life experiences, and in doing so, we avoid direct contact with destructive or harmful contingencies or contingencies that would be inefficient to contact. However, individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) frequently struggle with RGB, leaving them at increased risk of contacting aversive consequences. As a result, acquiring RGB can be a valuable developmental outcome for individuals with ASD. The current study examined the effectiveness of an intervention program designed to promote acquisition and generalization of rule-governed social skills in children with ASD. Multiple exemplar training (MET) resulted in increased performance of the target behavior as well as successful discrimination.

Exploring the relationship between psychological flexibility and self-report and task-based measures of cognitive flexibility

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) interventions aim to increase psychological flexibility (PF) leading to positive treatment outcomes. It has been suggested that successful development of PF may depend on cognitive flexibility (CF). There is however a lack of clear empirical evidence accounting for the relationship between the two constructs. The current study investigated the relationship between PF and CF in a large nonclinical sample of younger adults (N = 246). Participants completed self-report measures of PF, and both self-report and task-based measures of CF. Results indicated that self-report, but not task-based, CF correlated with and predicted PF (r = −0.49, 95% BCa CI [−0.58, −0.38], R2 = 0.236). The results are discussed with reference to rule-governed behaviour, approaches to measurement, and ACT, with suggestions for future research.

Psychometric Properties of the Generalized Pliance Questionnaire in Spain

Abstract. Rule-governed behavior is a central concept to explain complex human behavior from a functional-analytic standpoint. Recently, a self-report measure of a functional type of rule-following called generalized pliance has been developed – the Generalized Pliance Questionnaire (GPQ). The GPQ has two versions with 18 and 9 items, respectively. This study aimed to analyze the factor structure and psychometric properties of both GPQ versions in a Spanish online sample ( N = 846). Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the one-factor model obtained an acceptable fit in the GPQ-18, but an inadequate fit in the GPQ-9. The GPQ-18 showed measurement invariance across gender, excellent internal consistency, and convergent construct validity. According to the results, the GPQ-18 showed good psychometric properties in Spanish samples.

Self and rules in a sample of adults experiencing homelessness: Relationships to shame, well-being, and psychological inflexibility

Identification with a stigmatized group, such as people experiencing homelessness, is an important contributor to shame. Shame is relevant to issues of the self, other-generated conceptualizations of the self, and rule-governed behavior. Contextual behavioral science outlines a philosophically sound, theoretically coherent, evidence-based account of the self that lends itself to empirical work. More specifically, recent developments in relational frame theory have resulted in a behavioral measure of both self and other discriminations and types of rule-governed behavior evident in naturally occurring language, namely the Functional Self-Discrimination Measure (FSDM). Using the FSDM with a sample of adults experiencing homelessness (n = 22), the present study examined the relationships between occurrences of self and other discriminations and shame, well-being, and psychological inflexibility. The present study also explored whether occurrences of self, other, and rules codes were related. Findings indicated that both shame and psychological inflexibility were associated with greater unfavorable self-evaluations and greater references to rule-governed behavior and the self as distinct from private events. Well-being was associated with greater favorable self-evaluations and greater references to values-oriented self-rules and beliefs. Findings are discussed with reference to a need to further refine existing FSDM codes, examine FSDM data at more than one time-point, and explore other aspects of relational responding in addition to the frequency of occurrence in natural-language speech.

A Behavior-Analytic Approach to Antivaccination Practices.

In recent years, there has been an increase in outbreaks of diseases that are preventable by vaccination. As vaccination involves behavior, behavior analysts are uniquely positioned to contribute solutions to this socially significant problem. The present article explores a behavior-analytic approach to understanding the function of the behavior of both people who have their children vaccinated and those who do not have their children vaccinated, and potential interventions to increase vaccination rates. An introduction to the problem is followed by a brief history of the antivaccination movement. In our analysis, a failure to vaccinate is conceptualized as a noncompliance response (i.e., medical nonadherence), and conditions giving rise to that noncompliance are evaluated. In this process, the roles of avoidance, the functional-altering impact of rule-governed behavior, relational frames, and countercontrol are considered. Potential solutions informed by applied behavior-analytic literature, including contingency management and behavioral safety, are discussed.